Peru's independence movement was led by José de San Martín from Argentina and Simón Bolívar from Venezuela. San Martín proclaimed Peruvian independence from Spain on the 28th of July 1821. It was successfully completed in December 1824, when Venezuelan General Antonio José de Sucre defeated the Spanish troops at Ayacucho, ending the Spanish reign in South America.

After independence Peru and its neighbours engaged in intermittent territorial disputes. Peru suffered a series of defeats by Chile during the Pacific War from 1879 to 1883. Continuous boundary disagreements led to several wars with Ecuador in the 20th century that were only completely solved in 1998 when the governments of Peru and Ecuador signed an historic peace treaty and demarcated the border. The outstanding issues between Chile and Peru were settled a year later, but still both countries are in dispute over the sea boundary.

Peru’s political development in the 20th century was characterised by parties reflecting the oligarch elements (oligarch = only a few hold power in a state) of Peruvian society. The military has been prominent throughout Peruvian history. Military coups have repeatedly interrupted civilian constitutional governments.

The most recent period of military rule began in 1968 when General Velasco overthrew the elected President Fernando Belaunde Terry. As part of what has been called the "first phase" of the military government's nationalist program, Velasco undertook an extensive agricultural reform program, nationalized the fishmeal industry (a major source of income, even today), some petroleum and mining companies and several banks. Elections were staged between populist parties favoured by the military; corruption and abuse of human rights were very common.

Velasco's economic mismanagement and deteriorating health led to his replacement in 1975 by General Morales Bermudez. Morales tempered the authoritarian abuses of the Velasco administration and began the task of restoring the country's economy. He presided over the return to a civilian government under a new democratic constitution. In the following elections in May 1980 President Belaunde Terry was (re-)elected as president of Peru.

The new elected civilian government of Belaunde lifted controls of the press placed by the military dictatorship and ended the agricultural reforms. Nevertheless economic problems worsened due to natural disasters and the fall of international commodity prices. In consequence production decreased, wages depressed, unemployment exaggerated and inflation increased dramatically.

The economic collapse worsened living conditions for poor Peruvians and provided a breeding ground for social and political discontent. The emergence of the terrorist group Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) in rural areas followed shortly thereafter by the Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) in Lima and sent the country further into chaos. The terrorists were financed partially with alliances to drug cartels, who had established a stronghold in the Peruvian Andes during this period. Peru and Bolivia became the largest coca producers in the world.

In 1985 Alan García, the candidate of the Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) was elected as president. Unfortunately the economic mismanagement of Garcia’s administration led to hyperinflation and his presidency is still associated with numerous massacres by the military against those who were even only suspected of being involved with the Shining Path.

In the 1990 elections, voters that were concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from the Sendero Luminoso and official corruption, chose a relatively unknown mathematician-turned-politician, Alberto Fujimori, as president. He immediately implemented drastic economic reforms to tackle the inflation (which dropped from 7,650% - yes, seven thousend six hundret and fifty percent - in 1990 to 139% in 1991), but found opposition to further drastic measures.

In 1992 Fujimori stunned Peruvians and the outside world with a ‘coup’ against his own government; he suspended the Congress, revised the constitution, exiled opponents like Alan García and called in new congressional elections. This unique move was welcomed by disenchanted voters and after a failed military coup he was re-elected. With a more flexible Congress Fujimori proceeded to govern without hindrance. He privatised state-owned companies, removed investment barriers and significantly improved public finances. After Fujimori’s constitutionally questionable decision to seek a third term, he was declared as the winner of the 2000 presidential elections.

A bribery scandal (including money laundry and government corruption) that arose just weeks after he began his third term brought political and economic chaos to the country. Fujimori, claimed to be innocent, but still he resigned from office in November 2000 while being on a state trip to Japan. Since his resignation a number of human rights abuses and violations came to light. In spite of efforts to prosecute Fujimori, he emerged from exile in Japan supported by many Peruvians to run for the 2006 presidential elections, but was detained in Santiago, Chile, where he was kept in custody.

After Fujimori’s resignation a caretaker government under Valentin Paniagua supervised the new necessary presidential and congressional elections in April 2001. The new elected government, led by Alejandro Toledo as President, took office on the 28th of July 2001. The Toledo government successfully consolidated Peru's return to democracy. President Toledo's strong economic management led to an impressive economic boom in Peru that remained strong. Even so poverty only decreased nationally by 5% and over half of Peruvians are still considered to be living below the poverty line (living on less than $2 a day).

In June 2006 Alan García, candidate of the Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) was elected as president once again. After a really disappointing presidential term from 1985 to 1990, García stated that he had learned from his past mistakes and returned to the presidency with many promises to improve Peru’s social conditions. García seeks to balance economic stability with increased social spending. His immediate goal is to decrease poverty, especially in Peru’s southern highlands where poverty is most acute. Additionally Garcia’s government tries to be accountable and transparent.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic. The government is divided into three branches: the executive, the legislative and the judicial.

The President is popularly elected for a five-year term. The Peruvian constitution of 1993 permitted one consecutive re-election; but after the ‘Toledo case’ a constitutional amendment passed in 2000 that prevents re-election. The president is both head of state and head of government. The first vice president and the second vice president are also popularly elected but have no constitutional functions unless the president is unable to perform his duties.

The principal executive body is the Council of Ministers, comprised of 15 members and headed by a prime minister. The president appoints its members, who must be ratified by the Congress. All executive laws sent to Congress must be approved by the Council of Ministers.

The legislative branch consists of a unicameral Congress of 120 members popular elected for a five year term. Peru has a multi-party system, which prevents that one party has the main influence in a decision making process. The Peruvian Congress passes laws, ratifies treaties, authorizes government loans and approves the government budget.

The judicial branch of government is headed by a 16-member Supreme Court seated in Lima. The Constitutional Tribunal interprets the constitution on matters of individual rights. Superior courts in departmental capitals review appeals from decisions by lower courts. Courts of first instance are located in provincial capitals and are divided into civil, penal and special chambers. The judiciary has created several temporary specialized courts in an attempt to reduce the large backlog of cases pending final court action. An Ombudsman's office was created to address human right issues in 1996.

All Peruvians over the age of 18 years living in Peru or abroad have the obligation to vote. The vote is universal, secret and direct. In the 2006 elections military, police… had this obligation for the first time as well (in previous elections especially members of the army were prohibited to vote, avoiding a new military regime).

During the elections political gatherings are forbidden, while public gatherings of any sort are prohibited during voting hours, including religious liturgies and entertainment shows (even the selling of alcohol is not permitted and bars/clubs are closed).

Peru is, according to the Regionalization Law from 2002, divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. The regions are Amazonas, Ancash, Apurímac, Arequipa, Ayacucho, Cajamarca, Callao, Cusco, Huancavelica, Huánuco, Ica, Junín, La Libertad, Lambayeque, Lima, Lima Metropolitana, Loreto, Madre de Dios, Moquegua, Pasco, Piura, Puno, San Martin, Tacna, Tumbes and Ucayali.

The regions are subdivided into provinces, which are composed of districts. There are 180 provinces and 1747 districts. High authorities on regional and local levels are elected.

• Alianza Para el Progreso (Alliance for Progress)
• Fuerza Democrática (Democratic Force)
• Justicia Nacional (National Justice)
• Partido Socialista (Socialist Party)
• Movimiento Nueva Izquierda (New Left Movement)
• Avanza País (Go On Country)
• Concertación Descentralista (Decentralization Coalition)
• Frente Popular Agrícola FIA del Perú – FREPAP (Agricultural People’s Front of Peru)
• Renacimiento Andino (Andean Renaissance)
• Con Fuerza Perú (With Force Peru)
• Perú Ahora (Peru Now)
• Reconstrucción Democrática (Democratic Reconstruction)
• Proyecto País (Project Country)
• Resurgimiento Peruano ( Peruvian Resurgance)
• Y se llama Perú (And It’s Called Peru)
• Progresemos Perú (Let’s make Progress in Peru)

President: Alan García
First Vice President: Luis Giampietri
Second Vice President: Lourdes Mendoza
President of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister): Jorge Del Castillo
Foreign Affairs Minister: José García
Finance and Economy Minister: Luis Carranza
Defence Minister: Allan Wagner
Minister of the Interior: Pilar Mazzetti
Permanent Representative to the United Nations: Oswaldo De Rivero

There are two main rebel groups operating in Peru, both leftist: the ‘Sendero Luminoso’ (Shining Path) and the ‘Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru’ (Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement).

Both groups arose in response to Peru’s entrenched system of race and class based discrimination, which has deeply impoverished most of the country's population, especially citizens of indigenous descent. Therefore most members and supporters of the ‘Shining Path’ and the ‘Tupac Amaru Movement’ belong(ed) to the poor and forgotten class of the population. ‘Sendero Luminoso’ and the ‘Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru’ both seek(ed) to overthrow the existing Peruvian government and impose their own communist regimes.

‘Shining Path’, founded in the late 60’s by former university professor Abimael Guzman, is a militant Maoist group that wants to install a peasant revolutionary authority in Peru. The ‘Sendero Luminoso’ first established a foothold in San Cristóbal of Huamanga University, where Guzman taught philosophy. Between 1973 and 1975 ‘Shining Path’ gained control of the student councils in the Universities of Huancayo and La Cantuta, and developed a significant presence in the National University of Engineering in Lima and the National University of San Marcos, the oldest university in the Americas. The group took up arms in 1980. It was one of the world’s most ruthless insurgencies.

The ‘Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru’, named after the 18th century rebel leader who fought against Spanish colonial control, was founded on many of the communist principles that led to the Cuban revolution. The group, which is Marxist and wants to ‘clean’ Peru of all imperialist elements, took up arms in 1984 and had at its height close to 1,000 members. ‘Tupac Amaru’ members have tried to promote a Robin Hood image of stealing from the rich to help the poor. ‘Tupac Amaru’ is best known for its 1996 takeover of the Japanese ambassador’s residence in Lima. Most of its leaders were killed in 1997 when Peruvian forces raided the Japanese compound and freed the hostages.

In the 1980s and early 1990s vicious terrorist attacks were daily occurrences across Peru.’ Shining Path’ and ‘Tupac Amaru’ were notorious for indiscriminate bombings, assassinations, brutal killings, kidnappings, bank robberies and attacks on Western embassies and businesses. The human and economic toll was devastating and Peruvians have a particular dread of terrorism right to this day. More than 30,000 people have died during this time.

When it became evident to the Peruvian government that ‘Shining Path’ and ‘Tupac Amaru’ represented a clear threat to the state, former Peruvian President Alberto Fujimori waged an aggressive and highly successful campaign against the terrorist groups. Fujimori seized near-dictatorial powers in April 1992, granted the military the power to arbitrarily detain any suspicious person and disbanded Peru’s congress and courts, which he said were limiting his ability to crack down on terrorism. Within a few years Fujimori had captured most of the leaders of the rebel groups, and terrorism subsequently declined sharply. Thousands of Peruvians were convicted of terrorism-related charges and sentenced to life imprisonment by military courts. Human rights activists accuse the Peruvian military of committing widespread human rights abuses during the crackdown, including several massacres, where entire villages where wiped out and the jailing of thousands of innocent Peruvians, at times subjecting them to torture and rape.

Although ‘Shining Path’ was cracked down and lost its terrifying strength it continues to exist in Peru. Today remaining groups of Peru's most notorious terrorist group have an estimated 300 members and are now dedicated protecting Peruvian drug barons and their illicit operations throughout the Peruvian jungle. ‘Sendero Luminoso’ is not sponsored by any state and has no known links to other terrorist groups. It considers itself the only remaining true communist revolutionary movement.

With most of its leaders dead or imprisoned the ‘Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Amaru’ lost its former power and influence as well. Today the group has less than 100 members. ‘Tupac Amaru’ initially received support and some training from Cuba and has historical ties to two leftist insurgent groups, the FARC in Colombia and the FMLN in El Salvador.

• US Department of State and Council of Foreign Relation
• Lima easy SAC